I. Unveiling the Essence of Ragamala Paintings
Ragamala paintings represent a distinctive and profound genre within Indian miniature art, literally translating to "garland of ragas".
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See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons |
Two lovers, folio from a Ragamala album. Pigment on cloth, in the technique closely resembling that used in Orissan patha-chitras. This panel is perhaps meant to illustrate Kodaba, a Raga not widely known. 16 x 12cm. Orissa, mid-nineteenth century. Private collection Date : 1850
Each painting is meticulously crafted to embody a specific emotional state, or rasa (also referred to as bhava), a particular mood, and is intrinsically linked to a corresponding season and time of day.
These visual narratives frequently depict a hero (nayaka) and heroine (nayika), whose experiences and interactions illustrate the emotional essence of the raga.
The complexity of this system extends to a hierarchical "family" structure, where each principal raga is visually accompanied by its wives, (raginis), numerous sons (ragaputras), and daughters (ragaputris), symbolizing the intricate permutations and derivations within the Indian musical system.
The origins of Ragamala paintings are deeply rooted in the centuries-old Indian musical tradition. The system of ragas first inspired poets to compose descriptive texts, with foundational works such as the Brihaddeshi (6th-8th century CE) by Matang Muni introducing Ragadhyana—short poetic verses intended for meditating on the deities associated with specific ragas.
Sangita Ratnakara (12th century CE) further advanced this by explicitly mentioning the presiding deity of each raga.
The profound interweaving of music, poetry, and painting in Ragamala art signifies a deliberate and sophisticated synesthetic approach. This integration goes beyond simple illustration; it aims to facilitate a deeper, multi-sensory apprehension of the rasa (emotional essence) inherent in the musical modes. The paintings were conceived to evoke specific emotional responses in the viewer, allowing them to "taste" the feeling, or essence, of each mood.
This holistic artistic philosophy, where different sensory experiences are intentionally combined to create a unified aesthetic and emotional impact, distinguishes classical Indian artistic traditions from many others that often compartmentalize art forms. The very name "garland of ragas" suggests an interconnected, holistic system, where each component contributes to a richer, more immersive experience.
Furthermore, the detailed "family" structure of ragas, encompassing ragas, raginis, ragaputras, and ragaputris, functioned as an advanced mnemonic and pedagogical framework. This visual grammar aided both musicians and connoisseurs in grasping the complex theoretical permutations and relationships within the Indian classical musical system, thereby supporting systematic learning and creative improvisation.
For the artists, this structure provided a standardized iconographic guide, ensuring consistency and accuracy in depicting the diverse facets of each musical mode. The inherent complexity and systematic classification of Indian classical music directly necessitated and influenced the development of a similarly structured and hierarchical visual iconography in Ragamala paintings, making an abstract auditory system comprehensible and memorable through visual analogy.
Table 1: Principal Ragas and Their Iconographic Associations
| Raga Name | Associated Season | Typical Mood/Theme | Key Iconographic Elements/Personification |
| Bhairava | Winter / Early Morning | Serenity, Divine, Austere | Lord Shiva, often with Nandi (his vehicle) |
| Deepak | Summer | Passion, Heat, Longing | Couple with a lamp, often associated with fire or light |
| Sri | Autumn | Happiness, Relaxation, Nostalgia | Evening concert, Sage Narada and Tumburu entertaining a king |
| Malkaunsa | Early Winter / After Midnight | Profound Depth, Love, Contemplation | Human lord, fair-skinned aristocratic raginis steeped in love |
| Megha | Monsoon | Joy, Anticipation, Romantic | Blue-complexioned man with lover, black clouds, rain, peacocks |
| Hindola | Spring | Playfulness, Celebration, Love | Prince or Krishna on a swing with consorts, often with rain in background |
II. Historical Evolution and Royal Patronage
While the musical system of ragas has an ancient lineage, tracing back to the 5th century CE, Ragamala paintings as a distinct visual art form began to emerge in the late 15th century.
The zenith of this art form occurred during the 16th and 17th centuries, a period marked by extensive and generous patronage from various Indian royal courts.
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Rijksmuseum, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons |
The influence of Mughal courts also contributed to the dissemination of this style, as painters often accompanied their patrons to various administrative and military postings across the empire.
Sultan Ali Adil Shah II van Bijapur
The widespread royal patronage served as a powerful catalyst for both artistic innovation and the broad dissemination of Ragamala painting styles. The consistent support from various kingdoms allowed artists to refine their techniques, experiment with new compositions, and establish distinct regional schools. This patronage not only ensured the survival and flourishing of the art form but also facilitated the movement of artists across different courts, leading to a rich cross-pollination of styles and themes throughout the subcontinent.
The commissioning of large sets of paintings, often for intimate viewing within aristocratic settings, encouraged a high degree of artistic excellence and meticulous detail.
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Unknown Author, CC BY 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons |
Detail of Ragamala miniature entitled 'Desakh rangini of Hindola'. Ragamala paintings are images which depict, in physical form, the 'modes' or scales used in Indian Classical Music, known as ragas. Usually accompanied by an inscription or poem, they elucidate the season and time of day in which a raga was meant to be performed, as well as its mood, and often portray the Hindu deities with which they are individually associated.
This evolution in subject matter closely paralleled the rise of the Bhakti movement, a popular devotional wave within Hinduism that encouraged the expression of love and divine devotion as deeply intertwined concepts.
The Bhakti movement, with its focus on personal devotion and emotional connection to the divine, found a natural visual expression in the humanized narratives of Ragamala, where the love between a man and a woman could serve as a metaphor for the soul's longing for the divine.
III. Major Schools and Their Distinctive Artistic Features
Ragamala paintings were produced across most major schools of Indian miniature painting, including the Pahari, Rajasthan (or Rajput), Deccan, and Mughal schools, each developing its unique stylistic interpretation.
Mewar School
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unidentified artist, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons A Portrait of Maharana Fateh Singh of Udaipur and Mewar |
Mewar paintings frequently feature detailed architectural settings such as palaces, temples, and gardens, meticulously rendered with intricate details like carved pillars and frescoes, which provide context and depth to the scenes.
Figures are typically depicted in a three-quarters view, with distinctive long pointed noses and protruding eyes.
Early Mewar Ragamala sets, such as the one painted at Chawand in 1605 by Nasiruddin, showcase this expressive and vigorous style.
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anonymous, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons |
India, Rajasthan, Mewar school
A European Lady holding a bottle and cup - 2018.143
Cleveland Museum of Art
Sahibdin (Mewar School)
Sahibdin (active circa 1628–55),a prominent artist active in Udaipur from circa 1628–55 under Maharana Jagat Singh I, played a pivotal role in redefining the Rajput style, blending Hindu themes with Mughal influences.
He stands as one of the most prominent painters of the Mewar School of Rajasthani painting.
Notable works by Sahibdin include:
Ragamala of 1628: This series, commissioned by Maharana Jagat Singh I, showcases his early mastery. A specific folio, Malavi Ragini, depicts a prince and his lover approaching a bedchamber, with pictorial elements like paired pots and exuberant foliage enhancing the erotic mood.
Rasikapriya (circa 1630): Sahibdin produced secular works exploring themes of love, such as illustrations for this poem.
Gita Govinda (1629, 1635): He created two folios for this religious text, with the later version from 1635 featuring remarkable depictions of forest scenes with highly detailed leaves and flowering plants, a level of detail previously unseen in Rajasthani miniature painting.
Ramayana Illustrations (circa 1652): Sahibdin, along with Manohar Das, headed groups of artists in an ambitious project to illustrate the entirety of the Ramayana, with some illustrations from the Yuddha Kanda attributed to him.
Other attributed works include The Young, Bashful Nayika (circa 1630–35) and Uddhav Consoles the Dejected Gopis (circa 1640).
Sahibdin's exposure to the sub-imperial Mughal style, likely at Udaipur palace, brought a new naturalism to his portraiture and a Mughalesque attention to descriptive detail.
Malwa School
The Malwa school, primarily active in Malwa and Bundelkhand during the 17th century, is characterized by its conservative approach and a charming, primitive simplicity.
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anonymous, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons |
Central India, Malwa - A page from the Bhagavata Purana- Indra sends a torrent of rain; Krishna li - 2018.134 - Cleveland Museum of Art
Black and chocolate-brown backgrounds, along with architecture painted in lively colors, are also common.
Notable works include a Ragamala series from 1680 CE by an artist named Madhau Das who was an artist associated with the Malwa school, known for a Ragamala series painted in 1680 CE at Narsyanga Shah.
Deccan School
Deccan painting, flourishing from the late 16th century in sultanates like Bijapur and Ahmadnagar, is celebrated for its exceptional brilliance of color, sophisticated compositions, and an overall air of luxurious decadence.
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Jawaher Ali Khan, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons |
Painting of five Sikh gurus (most likely identifiable as Guru Nanak, Guru Hargobind, Guru Gobind Singh, Guru Tegh Bahadur, and Guru Har Rai) and Bhai Mardana, Deccan, circa late 1770's. Kept in the Salar Jung Museum. The museum mistakenly ascribes the depiction of Guru Nanak under the tree as Guru Gobind Singh. In-fact, Guru Gobind Singh is seen in the bottom-right corner, holding an arrow.
The style is a sensitive blend of indigenous and foreign art forms, with elongated figures reminiscent of Vijayanagar wall paintings and Persian influences seen in floral-sprigged backgrounds and high horizons.
Nujūm-ul-ʿulūm of 1570, is a product of Bijapur, a key center where patronage by figures like Ibrahim Adil Shah II greatly stimulated the arts.
Pahari School
The Pahari school, encompassing various kingdoms in the Himalayan foothills like Guler, Kangra, and Basohli, developed a distinctive style from the 17th to 19th centuries.
Guler Sub-School
Guler is recognized as the birthplace of Kangra painting, where Kashmiri painters trained in the Mughal style sought refuge in the early 18th century.
A distinguishing feature is the naturalistic portrayal of lush landscapes, meandering rivers, and waterfalls, often depicting scenic beauty more prominently than other Pahari contemporaries.
Kangra Sub-School
The Kangra school, a successor to the Basohli style, is considered the most lyrical and poetic among Pahari miniatures, flourishing significantly under Raja Sansar Chand.
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See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons |
This is a miniature painting of (Emperor of the Sikhs) Maharaja Ranjit Singh's queen, Moran Sarkar. It is most probably from the Kangra school of miniature painting. Circa 1800
Kangra paintings are also celebrated for their graceful depiction of feminine charm, with figures possessing soft, refined facial features, often with a slightly upturned nose, long narrow "doe-like" eyes, and sharp chins.
Themes frequently revolve around love, nature, mythology, and spirituality, particularly the Radha-Krishna romance, Bhagavata Purana, and Gita Govinda.
Nainsukh and Manaku (Pahari/Guler-Kangra School)
Nainsukh (1710–1778) and his older brother Manaku were pivotal figures in the development of the Kangra style of painting, originating from the Guler sub-school.
Nainsukh, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons Miniature by Nainsukh (c. 1710-1778), Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Their work, often under the patronage of rulers like Raja Govardhan Chand, included subjects such as the Bhagavata Purana and the Gita Govinda.
Basohli Sub-School
Originating in the Basohli town of Jammu and Kashmir, Basohli painting is known for its bold use of primary colors—especially red, yellow, and blue—and distinctive facial compositions.
Rasamanjari, a Sanskrit text on love, was a particularly popular source of inspiration, allowing artists to convey a wide range of emotions.
Bundi School
The Bundi school, active from the 17th to 19th centuries in the princely state of Bundi (Rajasthan), is distinguished by its fondness for lush vegetation, dramatic night skies, and a unique depiction of water using light swirls against a dark background.
Female figures often have small, round faces with pronounced shading, padal-shaped eyes, and pointed noses.
Kotah School
Emerging from the Bundi tradition, the Kotah school (17th–18th centuries, Rajasthan) initially shared stylistic similarities with Bundi, including Ragamala themes.
Human figures often have a ruddy, orange-tinted complexion and sharp features, with women characterized by round faces, elongated almond-shaped eyes, and slender forms.
Bikaner School
The Bikaner school, a Rajasthani style developing in the late 17th century, shows a strong relationship to the Mughal style, with finer lines and a more reserved color palette compared to other Rajput schools.
Bikaner paintings often depict court portraits and illustrations to Hindu texts, including Ragamala series.
The development of these distinct schools within the broader Ragamala tradition illustrates a significant phenomenon of regional artistic specialization. While the core concept of visualizing musical modes remained constant, each court and region adapted it to its unique cultural context, aesthetic preferences, and available artistic talent. This led to a rich stylistic diversity, where common themes were rendered with varied palettes, compositional approaches, and figure types.
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anonymous, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons |
India, Popular Mughal School, probably done at Bikaner - A page from the Mahabharata- Bhima fighting with Jayadratha - 2018 -
Cleveland Museum of Art
Colour on Paper
Mughal naturalism, refined brushwork, and attention to detail were often integrated into indigenous Rajput and Deccan traditions, creating hybrid styles that combined local vibrancy with imperial sophistication.
This constant interplay of influences highlights the dynamic and evolving nature of Indian miniature painting. Furthermore, the flourishing of these schools underscores the importance of artistic evolution and specialization within royal ateliers.
Master artists, often leading workshops, developed signature styles that were then adopted and adapted by their pupils, ensuring the continuity and refinement of these artistic traditions over centuries. The ability of artists to adapt and innovate within the patronage system allowed for a continuous stream of creative output, enriching the visual heritage of Ragamala.
Ruknuddin (Bikaner School)
Ruknuddin (Rukn/h ud din Firuz) was a master artist in the Bikaner School, active around 1675–95.
Kedar Ragini (circa 1690-1695) is housed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
IV. Artistic Techniques and Materials
Ragamala paintings, as a subset of Indian miniature painting, represent a sophisticated evolution from earlier wall paintings to more intimate, smaller formats such as palm-leaf, cloth, bark, parchment, and predominantly, paper.
The creation of these paintings relied heavily on natural substances for their vibrant and lasting pigments.
Gold and silver were applied using techniques like gold leaf and saras paste for fine lines and in-lay work, contributing to the opulence of the artworks.
The ability to create such a wide spectrum of vibrant and stable hues from natural sources is a testament to the sophisticated chemical and artistic knowledge possessed by these painters.
The painting process itself was methodical and precise. The canvas typically consisted of waslis—layered, thin sheets of handmade paper glued together to achieve the desired thickness and smoothness.
The artist would begin by lightly sketching the outline of the composition in black or brown, ensuring correct proportions.
Fine detailing, including facial features, clothing patterns, and jewelry, was added using delicate brushwork, often with single-hair brushes made from animal tails like squirrel or mongoose, allowing for microscopic lines.
The collaborative atelier system, prevalent in royal workshops, played a crucial role in the production of these complex miniatures. Often, a team of artists would work on a single painting: one might determine the composition, another would handle the coloring, and a specialist might focus on individual faces.
This division of labor, overseen by master artists, allowed for a high volume of production while maintaining exceptional quality and consistency. The master artist would often sign the work after adding final touches, even if pupils had painted the majority, a process known as
This system fostered artistic lineages, ensuring that techniques and styles were passed down through generations, contributing to the continuity and evolution of the Ragamala tradition. The meticulous, multi-stage process, from paper preparation to final detailing, highlights the profound craftsmanship embedded in these paintings, transforming raw materials into enduring visual interpretations of abstract musical concepts.
V. Other Important Artists and Their Notable Works
While many Ragamala paintings remain anonymous, attributed to various schools rather than individual hands, several master artists are recognized for their significant contributions, often through inscriptions on their works or royal archives.
Ibrahim Adil Shah II of Bijapur (1580–1627), a significant patron of the Deccan courts, was himself a fine painter and illustrator, contributing to the flourishing of arts in his region.
The existence of numerous attributed works, often with inscriptions detailing the artist's name, date, and place of production, provides invaluable documentation for the study of Ragamala paintings.
This practice, particularly strong in schools like Bikaner, allows art historians to trace artistic lineages and understand the development of styles over time. The careers of artists like Sahibdin and Ruknuddin demonstrate how artistic styles were not static but evolved through cross-cultural influences, particularly from the Mughal and Deccan traditions, and were adapted to the tastes and themes favored by their royal patrons.
The passing down of techniques and stylistic elements through generations, often within family workshops, further underscores the importance of these artistic lineages in shaping the rich and diverse landscape of Ragamala painting.
VI. The Enduring Legacy of Visual Music
Ragamala paintings stand as a singular achievement in Indian art, embodying a profound synesthetic fusion of classical music, poetry, and visual expression. From their ancient roots in musical treatises and poetic contemplation, these "garlands of ragas" evolved into a sophisticated art form that personified abstract musical modes into vibrant, emotionally resonant visual narratives.
The intricate "family" structure of ragas and raginis not only provided a rich iconographic framework for artists but also served as a powerful pedagogical tool, making complex musical theory accessible through visual analogy.
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Unknown Author, CC BY 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons Detail of Ragamala miniature entitled 'Ramakali Ragini of Bhairon'. |
This period witnessed a significant thematic shift, moving from the depiction of divine icons to more human-centric narratives of love, longing, and devotion, a transformation deeply influenced by the Bhakti movement.
This evolution allowed the paintings to connect with universal human sentiments, making the abstract concept of rasa tangible and relatable.
The widespread creation of Ragamala sets across diverse regional schools—including Mewar, Malwa, Deccan, and the various Pahari sub-schools like Guler, Kangra, Basohli, along with Bundi, Kotah, and Bikaner—highlights the genre's adaptability and the rich cross-cultural artistic exchange that characterized Indian miniature painting.
Each school developed distinctive stylistic features, from Mewar's vibrant colors and detailed architecture to Deccan's brilliant hues and mystic overtones, and Kangra's lyrical landscapes and delicate figures. These regional variations, while unique, were often influenced by the pervasive Mughal aesthetic, demonstrating a dynamic interplay of indigenous and imperial artistic traditions.
The meticulous artistic techniques, relying on natural pigments derived from minerals, vegetables, and precious metals, underscore the exceptional craftsmanship of the artists. The collaborative atelier system, where master artists guided teams and ensured the transmission of skills across generations, further contributed to the high quality and continuity of this tradition.
Identified artists such as Sahibdin, Nasiruddin, Ruknuddin, Madhau Das, Nainsukh, and Manaku, through their attributed works, provide invaluable insights into the artistic lineages and stylistic innovations that shaped Ragamala painting.
In essence, Ragamala paintings are more than mere illustrations; they are a testament to a holistic artistic philosophy where sound, word, and image converge to create an immersive, contemplative experience. Their enduring legacy lies in their ability to translate the ephemeral beauty of music into a timeless visual language, offering a rich tapestry of human emotion and divine devotion that continues to captivate and educate audiences today.
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